Read chapter 7 in your textbook. What follows is a summary of some of the most important things you need to know for this assignment; however, it is not a substitute for a through study of the textbook.

Case Structure

In chapter seven, the authors point out that in arguing to convince, "the audience consists of readers whose positions differ from our own or who have no position at all" (189). They continue by saying that "convincing is competitive" because we are asserting a case that will be compared to others and challenged (189). The facts and reasons that are discovered in inquiry are also important in convincing, "but in convincing we must adapt our reasoning" in order to appeal to the "beliefs, values, and self-interest" of our audience (189).

Thinking about Audience

In order to convince an audience, you have to a sense of the "rhetorical context" for the argument. The "Key Questions for Case Making" on page 191 will help you consider your audience and how to present your case.

Formulating the Thesis

Your text says that "your thesis may not be explicitly stated but it must be strongly implied, clear to you and your reader" (192). On this point, I diverge from the text. In the essay you write for this assignment, the thesis must be explicitly stated. The thesis in written argument is most often placed at the end of the introduction. Stating the thesis near the beginning of an essay gives it a deductive organization that helps the reader to anticipate and comprehend the reasons and evidence which follow. It is, of course, possible to present a convincing argument working inductively; however, in your essays, state the thesis at the end of your introduction.

Choosing Reasons

As a rule of thumb, your thesis should be supported by at least three reasons. And as the authors note, the order of presentation is important. Most writers use a climatic order which means that they reserve their most compelling reason until last. Leaving the reader with your most compelling reason will have the greatest impact and give you the best chance of convincing him to accept your thesis.

Using Evidence

Several kinds of evidence may be used to support your reasons.

• Facts and Figures
  
• Examples
  
• Testimony
  
• Narrative
  

Facts and figures are of first importance in arguing to convince. They are used to build rational appeals. When facts and figures are properly presented and explained, and a reader "adds up the evidence," the only logical conclusion should be that what you say is true. Note that a statement of fact is an assertion that some state of affairs currently exists or has existed in the past. However, statements of fact may be true or they may not be true. In most cases, the truth or falseness of a factual statement may be determined by consulting an authoritative source such as an encyclopedia, a government document, a research article, or a current textbook.

Examples are used to illustrate a specific point as when we say, "John was a generous man. For example, he supported his church with regular contributions, gave annually to the Red Cross, and contributed to Habitat for Humanity.

Testimony provides the words of experts on a specific topic. A genetic scientist might give expert testimony on DNA in a court case, or an archaeologist might examine an artifact to determine its date. The authors of articles that appear in professional journals are authorities and quotations from their writing can be cited as testimony. However, do not confuse expert testimony with celebrity testimony. Michael Jordan may endorse Wheaties, but he is no expert on nutrition.

Finally, narrative may be used as evidence. Above, we illustrated how specific examples might provide evidence. When an example involves a narrative and is developed at length, it becomes an anecdote, if it is relatively brief, and a story if it is extended. Narratives may be based on personal experience or observation; you can tell what you experienced or you can tell what you have witnessed as it happened to others.

Explaining the Evidence

After a writer has stated his thesis, given reasons for holding the position, and provided evidence, he is not done. The writer must also explain or comment on the evidence. The goal is to make the reader understand the relevance of the evidence to the reasons and to the thesis.

To understand the importance of interpreting your evidence for the reader, think about the television series Law and Order.

In the first half hour, the police investigate a crime and gather evidence. As part of the process, the evidence may be classified according to forensic types (DNA, fingerprints, ballistics, etc.), or according to locations found, or according to individuals it implicates, or in other ways. Based on this evidence, the prosecutors reach a conclusion about the guilt of a suspect, i.e. “John Brown killed the man.” This is the thesis that the prosecutors must prove in court. The process of collecting, classifying, and analyzing evidence in order to reach a conclusion involves primarily inductive thinking. In the familiar analogy, it is putting the pieces of the puzzle together to get the complete picture. In this instance, the complete picture is the conclusion as to who committed the crime.

When the prosecutors get to the trial, they contend that have the complete picture and assert the thesis that “John Brown killed the man.” They then present the evidence to the jury asking them to follow the same logical analysis and to reach the same conclusion that the prosecutors reached. Since the prosecutors already have the complete picture in mind, they show the jury how each piece logically fits in with the others. Their presentation is deductive because it is grounded on the conclusion that John Brown committed the murder.

The presentation of the evidence may be chronological; that is, a reconstruction of the events as they occurred. But it might just as well be based on a division of the evidence into categories that show motive, opportunity, and means. Thus when you are trying to formulate your thesis by examining and classifying the evidence, you are thinking inductively, but when you have arrived at your thesis and are trying to persuade others to accept it, you are thinking deductively.

Remember that for a prosecutor trying to prove a case, it is not enough to simply lay the evidence before the jury and point to it saying, “This is the gun that was used to kill John Brown. This is the DNA sample that the accused left at the crime scene. This is the imprint of a tire track that matches a tire on the car of the accused.” What the prosecutor has to do is to tie the evidence to the victim and the crime. He must explain the evidence and use it to paint a picture of the crime that proves the involvement of the accused.

Introducing the Argument

The introduction to an argument bears a heavy burden. It must first of all get your reader to move past the introduction and into the body of your argument. In writing it, you must find some way to appeal to your reader, not alienate them. Thus, as in the example essay in chapter seven, seek ways to place your ideas in a context that will be acceptable to the readers you are trying to convince. Again, to do this effectively, you must understand your audience and the way they think . See "Key Questions for Case-Making" on page 191.

Second, it must establish the credibility of the writer. A reader will ask "Who is this person writing and what does she know about the issue? Why should I take anything she says seriously? Credibility involves fairness, honesty, knowledge, a willingness to grant the validity of an opponent's point of view and to consider their legitimate concerns.

How you convey any or all of these perceptions will vary, but you might begin by letting the reader know that you have researched the issue by making explicit references to authorities on both sides that you have read. You might begin by giving an anecdote of a personal experience. You might concede the validity of an opponent's concern or give an anecdote that illustrates that concern in concrete terms. To be effective in establishing credibility, the introduction may have to be written (or extensively revised) after the essay is completed. At that point you may have discovered information and arrived at an understanding that will let you write a better introduction.

Your textbook points out a third task for the introduction. Here you may anticipate the contradictions to your thesis that you will address later. What are the major points that an opponent may bring against your thesis? You should have identified these in your research and be prepared to offer counter arguments. Making reference to your opponent's reasons and evidence here will prepare the reader for what is to come and help him to better comprehend your argument as you develop it.

Writing the Conclusion

Your textbook says that "Like introductions, conclusions are not throwaways, not merely hasty summaries. like introductions, they should do something, not just repeat what we've said already. The conclusion must clinch our case by ending it forcefully and memorably. This is good advice, but very general. More specifically what you want to do in a conclusion is to restate your thesis and to provide an overview of the main points you have established in support of it. Give the reader your argument in a nutshell to carry with them. Remember that your purpose is to convince readers that your thesis is a logical and valid conclusion based on the reasons and evidence you have presented.

One rhetorical handbook suggest the following techniques for concluding essays with a flourish. Before using any of them, consider their appropriateness for your topic and audience.

• Strike a note of hope or despair.
  
• Give a symbolic or powerful fact or other detail.
  
• Give an especially compelling example.
  
• Create a visual image that represents your subject.
  
• Use a quotation.
  
• Recommend a course of action.
  
• Summarize the paper.
  
• Echo the approach of the introduction.
  
• Restate your thesis and reflect on its implications.

Documenting your Essay

Research is an important part of this assignment. You cannot write a successful argumentative essay to convince someone to accept your thesis on a topic unless you have read extensively and know what you are writing about. So your essay must have both parenthetical documentation and a works cited that gives complete publication information for your sources. You will use the MLA style of documentation for this course. see pages 122-132 in your textbook for documentation models. My Links Page also has links to information on MLA documentation.

You may choose to use the topics and the source materials provided by your textbook. If you do so, you can use the publication information given in the credits section of the book.

The Length of your Essay

The completed essay must be at least 500 words. To do a good job on this assignment, your essay will need to be longer. There is no limit on length, but all essays should be concise, informative, and correct. Longer essays that multiply errors simply provide more justification for a poor grade. Microsoft Word will tell you how many words there are in a document.

Works Cited

This essay must have a works cited. A works cited is not the same thing as the annotated bibliography that you created in preparation for the essay. The works cited lists all the sources that you actually summarize, paraphrase, or quote in your argument. Give the complete bibliographic for each source following MLA guidelines. Arrange your sources alphabetically. Do not include any annotations for the sources on your works cited.

Outline

This essay must have an outline of your case structure. The outline should precede the body of the essay and must include an explicit statement of your thesis, the reasons you give in support of your thesis, and major points of evidence that you offer as proofs of your reasons. The reasons should be indicated on the outline by Roman numerals, and the points of evidence by capital letters. No further detail is required, but it is essential that the elements of the outline be accurately represented in the essay.

In other words, there needs to be a complete topic sentence in the body of your paper that expresses each of the reasons you include in your outline, and a complete subtopic sentence for each major piece of evidence that you offer as proof of your reasons. The order of the points on the outline and in the body of the essay should match; the structure of the outline and the structure of the essay should be mirror images.